Rhetoric

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Editor's Prelude

The opening pages

Book I, Chapter 1

RHETORICA

BOOK I

Chapter 1

Rhetoric is the counterpart of Dialectic. Both alike are concerned with such things as come, more or less, within the general ken of all men and belong to no definite science. Accordingly all men make use, more or less, of both; for to a certain extent all men attempt to discuss statements and to maintain them, to defend themselves and to attack others. Ordinary people do this either at random or through practice and from acquired habit. Both ways being possible, the subject can plainly be handled systematically, for it is possible to inquire the reason why some speakers succeed through practice and others spontaneously; and every one will at once agree that such an inquiry is the function of an art.

Now, the framers of the current treatises on rhetoric have constructed but a small portion of that art. The modes of persuasion are the only true constituents of the art: everything else is merely accessory. These writers, however, say nothing about enthymemes, which are the substance of rhetorical persuasion, but deal mainly with non-essentials. The arousing of prejudice, pity, anger, and similar emotions has nothing to do with the essential facts, but is merely a personal appeal to the man who is judging the case. Consequently if the rules for trials which are now laid down in some states—especially in well-governed states—were applied everywhere, such people would have nothing to say. All men, no doubt, think that the laws should prescribe such rules, but some, as in the court of Areopagus, give practical effect to their thoughts and forbid talk about non-essentials. This is sound law and custom. It is not right to pervert the judge by moving him to anger or envy or pity—one might as well warp a carpenter’s rule before using it. Again, a litigant has clearly nothing to do but to show that the alleged fact is so or is not so, that it has or has not happened. As to whether a thing is important or unimportant, just or unjust, the judge must surely refuse to take his instructions from the litigants: he must decide for himself all such points as the law-giver has not already defined for him.

Now, it is of great moment that well-drawn laws should themselves define all the points they possibly can and leave as few as may be to the decision of the judges; and this for several reasons. First, to find one man, or a few men, who are sensible persons and capable of legislating and administering justice is easier than to find a large number. Next, laws are made after long consideration, whereas decisions in the courts are given at short notice, which makes it hard for those who try the case to satisfy the claims of justice and expediency. The weightiest reason of all is that the decision of the lawgiver is not particular but prospective and general, whereas members of the assembly and the jury find it their duty to decide on definite cases brought before them. They will often have allowed themselves to be so much influenced by feelings of friendship or hatred or self-interest that they lose any clear vision of the truth and have their judgement obscured by considerations of personal pleasure or pain. In general, then, the judge should, we say, be allowed to decide as few things as possible. …

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Chapter guides · 6

1. Book I, Chapter 8

   Political Speech Must Fit the Constitution

   Public advice depends on how a city is governed and what its rulers value. Aristotle outlines four constitutions and the ends that guide them.

   Who holds authority

   A constitution sets the city's offices and authority. Aristotle names democracy, where offices are assigned by lot; oligarchy, where property qualifies people for office; and aristocracy, where the law requires a particular education. Monarchy places authority in one person, with kingship limited by conditions and tyranny unlimited.

   Different governments pursue different ends

   He connects democracy with freedom and oligarchy with wealth. Aristocracy aims to preserve its education and national institutions. Tyranny aims at the tyrant's protection. A political speaker needs to know the customs and interests that sustain each form of rule.

   A government's choices reveal its character

   Persuasion also rests on the character and goodwill a speaker seems to have. Constitutions, like people, reveal their aims through their choices. Aristotle closes by keeping this outline brief and referring the fuller study of governments to the Politics.

2. Book II, Chapter 2

   Anger Answers a Perceived Slight

   Aristotle describes anger as a painful desire for revenge against someone who seems to have slighted oneself or one's friends without justification. Imagining revenge adds pleasure to the pain.

   Revenge has a particular target

   Anger is directed at a person, rather than at humanity in general. The angry person pictures an injury being answered and expects revenge to be possible. Aristotle uses this expectation to explain why anger can feel sweet even while it hurts.

   Slighting takes three forms

   Contempt treats someone as unimportant. Spite blocks another person's wishes without seeking a gain. Insolence humiliates someone for the pleasure of feeling superior. Aristotle distinguishes this last motive from retaliation for an earlier injury.

   Pain and neglect make anger easier to stir

   Illness, poverty, frustrated desire, and unexpected harm can make people quick to anger. Mockery, forgotten names, ignored needs, and unreturned kindness can then feel like contempt. The chapter ends with the speaker's use of these patterns: disposing an audience to anger and presenting opponents as people who deserve it.

3. Book II, Chapter 12

   Youth Lives in Expectation

   Aristotle begins his portraits of character with young people. He presents youth as hopeful, passionate, and eager for honor, with little experience of disappointment or limits.

4. Book II, Chapter 21

   A Maxim Makes a General Claim About Conduct

   A maxim states a general judgment about what people should choose or avoid. It can make an argument persuasive and reveal the speaker's moral outlook.

5. Book III, Chapter 5

   Clear Sentences Depend on Correct Language

   Aristotle makes correct language the foundation of good style. Precise words, connected clauses, and clear sentence structure help an audience follow the meaning.

6. Book III, Chapter 14

   An Introduction Opens the Way to the Subject

   An introduction chiefly tells the audience what the speech is about. Aristotle also examines openings that address prejudice, win goodwill, or direct attention.

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Questions readers ask

How long does it take to read Rhetoric?

About 5 hr in total.

How difficult is Rhetoric?

Brutal. A long treatise; about 5 hours of reading.

Which translation is this?

The W. Rhys Roberts translation from the Ancient Greek. The text follows The Works of Aristotle Translated into English, Volume XI: Rhetorica (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1924).

Can I read Rhetoric for free?

Rhetoric is part of Nexus Premium, so reading it needs an account and a Premium subscription. The opening above and two chapter guides on this page are free to read.

How many chapter guides are there?

6 chapter guides, written by the Nexus editors. Two open in full here; the rest show their opening line.

About Aristotle

Aristotle studied at Plato's Academy, tutored the young Alexander the Great, and founded his own school in Athens. His work ranged across logic, ethics, politics, biology, rhetoric, and metaphysics, creating systems that shaped scholarship for centuries.

“What is this thing for?”

Aristotle becomes the operating system for logic, ethics, biology, politics, and medieval scholastic thought.

Source text: public domain. Chapter guides: original Nexus writing. Rhetoric is part of The Nexus Archive, guided Quests through the great works.

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